Abebe, Rediet, and Maximilian Kasy. 2021."The Means of Prediction." Boston Review, May20. https://www.bostonreview.net/forum_response/the-means-of-prediction/https://www.bostonreview.net/forum_response/the-means-of-prediction/.

Adema, Janneke. 2021. Living Books: Experiments in the Posthumanities. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Alvarado, Rafael, and Paul Humphreys. 2017. "Big Data, Thick Mediation, and Representational Opacity." New Literary History 48, no. 4(Autumn): 729–49.

Amoore, Louise. 2020. Cloud Ethics: Algorithms and the Attributes of Ourselves and Others. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Anderson, Chris. 2008. "The End of Theory: The Data Deluge Makes the Scientific Method Obsolete." Wired, June23. https://www.wired.com/2008/06/pb-theory/https://www.wired.com/2008/06/pb-theory/.

Andrejevic, Mark. 2007. "Surveillance in the Digital Enclosure." Communication Review 10, no. 4: 295–317.

Arendt, Hannah. 1951. The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt.

Barad, Karen. 2007. Meeting the Universe Halfway: Quantum Physics and the Entanglement of Matter and Meaning. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Bender, Emily M., Timnit Gebru, Angelina McMillan-Major, and Shmargaret Shmitchell. 2021. "On the Dangers of Stochastic Parrots: Can Language Models Be Too Big?" In FAccT '21:Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, 610–23. New York: Association for Computing Machinery.

Bender, Emily M. and Alexander Koller. 2020. "Climbing towards NLU: On Meaning, Form, and Understanding in the Age of Data." In Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 5185–98. https://aclanthology.org/2020.acl-main.463https://aclanthology.org/2020.acl-main.463.

Benjamin, Ruha. 2019. Race after Technology: Abolitionist Tools for the New Jim Code. Cambridge, MA: Polity.

Bennett, Jane. 2010. Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Bhaskar, Roy, and Alex Callinicos. 2003. "Marxism and Critical Realism: A Debate." Journal of Critical Realism 1, no. 2: 89–114.

Booten, Kyle. "Build Word-Gyms, Not Word-Factories." Paper presented at the conference "AI Futures: An Interdisciplinary Conversation on Large Language Models and the Future of Human Writing," Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, February16.

Bourdieu, Pierre, and Loïc Wacquant. 2013. "Symbolic Capital and Social Class." Journal of Classical Sociology 13, no. 2: 292–302.

Boyd, danah, and Kate Crawford. 2012. "CRITICAL QUESTIONS FOR BIG DATA: Provocations for a Cultural, Technological, and Scholarly Phenomenon." Information, Communication, and Society 15, no. 5(June): 662–79.

Broussard, Meredith. 2018. Artficial Unintelligence: How Computers Misunderstand the World. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Burgess, Jean, Kath Albury, Anthony McCosker, and Rowen Wilken. 2022. Everyday Data Cultures. Cambridge, MA: Polity.

Charette, Robert N. 2018. "Michigan's MiDAS Unemployment System: Algorithmic Alchemy Created Lead, Not Gold." IEEE Spectrum, January24. https://spectrum.ieee.org/michigans-midas-unemployment-system-algorithm-alchemy-that-created-lead-not-gold#toggle-gdprhttps://spectrum.ieee.org/michigans-midas-unemployment-system-algorithm-alchemy-that-created-lead-not-gold#toggle-gdpr.

Chen, Angela. 2018. "How Computers Misunderstand the World." The Verge, May 23. https://www.theverge.com/2018/5/23/17384324/meredith-broussard-artifical-unintelligence-technology-criticism-technochauvinism.

Chun, Wendy Hui Kyong. 2021. Discriminating Data: Correlation, Neighborhoods, and the New Politics of Recognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Ciston, Sarah. 2023. A Critical Field Guide for Working with Machine Learning Datasets. Edited by Mike Ananny and Kate Crawford. Knowing Machines. https://knowingmachines.org/critical-https://knowingmachines.org/critical-field-guide (accessed June 17).

Clark, Andy. 2016. Surfing Uncertainty: Prediction, Action, and the Embodied Mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Costanza-Chock, Sasha (@schock). 2023. "Generative AI systems are trained upon vast datasets of centuries of human creative and intellectual work [...]." Twitter thread, March 26, starting at 12:15 p.m. https://mobile.twitter.comhttps://mobile.twitter.com

Costanza-Chock, Sasha, Inioluwa Deborah Raji, and Joy Buolamwini. 2022. "Who Audits the Auditors? Recommendations from a Field Scan of the Algorithmic Auditing Ecosystem." Proceedings of the 2022 ACM Conference, 1571–83.

Coundouriotis, Eleni, and Lauren M. E. Goodlad. 2020. "What Is and Isn't Changing?" Modern Language Quarterly 81, no.

Crawford, Kate. 2021. Atlas of AI. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Croak, Marian, and Jen Gennai. 2023. "Responsible AI: Looking Back at 2022, and to the Future." Google: The Keyword, January11. https://blog.google/technology/ai/responsible-ai-looking-back-at-2022-and-to-the-future/https://blog.google/technology/ai/responsible-ai-looking-back-at-2022-and-to-the-future/.

De Castro, Eduardo Viveiro. 2015. "Who's Afraid of the Ontological Wolf: Some Comments on an Ongoing Anthropological Debate." Cambridge Journal of Anthropology 33, no. 1: 2–17.

Dejean, Mathieu, and Jean-Marc Lalanne. 2021. "Jacques Rancière: 'The Issue Is to Manage to Maintain Dissensus.'" Verso Book Club, August 10.

Denton, Emily, Alex Hanna, Razvan Amironesei, Andrew Smart, and Hilary Nicole. 2021. "On the Genealogy of Machine Learning Datasets: A Critical History of ImageNet." Big Data and Society 8, no. 2(July): 1–14.

De Vynck, Gerrit, and Will Oremus. 2023. "As AI Booms, Tech Firms Are Laying Off Their Ethicists." Washington Post, March 30.

D'Ignazio, Catherine, and Lauren F. Klein. 2020. Data Feminism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Doctorow, Cory. 2020. How to Destroy Surveillance Capitalism. New York: Medium Editions.

Escobar, Arturo. 2017. Designs for the Pluriverse: Radical Interdependence, Autonomy, and the Making of Worlds. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Ensmenger, Nathan. 2021. "The Cloud Is a Factory." In Your Computer Is on Fire, edited by Thomas S. Mullaney, Benjamin Peters, Mar Hicks, and Kavita Philip, 29–49. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Eubanks, Virginia. 2017. Automating Inequality: How High-Tech Tools Profile, Police, and Punish the Poor. New York: St. Martin's.

Foster, John Bellamy, and Robert W. McChesney. 2014. "Surveillance Capitalism: Monopoly-Finance Capital, the Military-Industrial Complex, and the Digital Age." Monthly Review 66, no. 3 (July/August): 1–31.

Foucault, Michel. 1995. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Translated by Alan Sheridan. New York: Vintage Books.

Fourcade, Marion, and Kieran Healy. 2017. "Seeing Like a Market." Socio-Economic Review 15, no. 1(January): 9–29.

Frenkel, Sheera, and Cecilia Kang. 2021. An Ugly Truth: Inside Facebook's Battle for Domination. New York: Harper Collins. Gitelman, Lisa, ed. 2013. "Raw Data" Is an Oxymoron. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Goodlad, Lauren M. E. 2020. "A Study in Distant Reading: Genre and the Longue Durée in the Age of AI." Modern Language Quarterly 81, no. 4: 491–525.

Goodlad, Lauren M. E. 2022. "Victorian 'Artificial Intelligence': Or How George Eliot's Fiction Helps Us to Understand Statistical Modelling." Sally Ledger Memorial Lecture, London, April 7.

Gray, Mary L., and Siddharth Suri. 2019. Ghost Work: How to Stop Silicon Valley from Building a New Global Underclass. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Halevy, Alon, Peter Norvig, and Fernando Pereira. 2009. "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Data." IEEE Intelligent Systems 24, no. 2: 8–12.

Halpern, Orit, Patrick Jagoda, Jeffrey West Kirkwood, and Leif Weatherby. 2022. "Surplus Data: An Introduction." Critical Inquiry 48, no. 2(Winter): 197–210.

Hao, Karen. 2020. "We Read the Paper That Forced Timnit Gebru Out of Google. Here's What It Says." MIT Technology Review, December4. https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/12/04/1013294/google-ai-ethics-research-paper-forced-out-timnit-gebru/https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/12/04/1013294/google-ai-ethics-research-paper-forced-out-timnit-gebru/.

Hardesty, Larry. 2017. "Explained: Neural Networks." MIT News, April14. https://news.mit.edu/2017/explained-neural-networks-deep-learning-0414https://news.mit.edu/2017/explained-neural-networks-deep-learning-0414.

Harney, Stefano, and Fred Moten. 2013. The Undercommons: Fugitive Planning and Black Study. Wivenhoe: Minor Compositions.

Harvey, David. 2005. A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Haslanger, Sally. 1995. "Ontology and Social Construction." Philosophical Topics 23, no. 2(Fall): 95–125.

Hicks, Marie. 2017. Programmed Inequality: How Britain Discarded Women Technologists and Lost Its Edge in Computing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Hofstadter, Douglas R. 1996. Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models of the Fundamental Mechanisms of Thought. New York: Basic Books.

Holbraad, Martin, and Morten Axel Pedersen. 2017. The Ontological Turn: An Anthropological Exposition. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Hu, Lily. Forthcoming. "What Is 'Race' in Algorithmic Discrimination on the Basis of Race?" Journal of Moral Philosophy. Jameson, Fredric. 2009. Valences of the Dialectic. London: Verso.

Kak, Amba, and Sarah Myers West. 2023. "AI Now 2023 Landscape: Confronting Tech Power." Presented at the AI Now Institute, April11. https://ainowinstitute.org/2023-landscapehttps://ainowinstitute.org/2023-landscape.

Krizhevsy, Alex, Ilya Sutskever, and Geoffrey E. Hinton. 2012. "ImageNet Classification with Deep Convolutional Neural Networks." In Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems, 1097–1105. Lake Tahoe, NV: ACM.

Lesjak, Carolyn. 2021. The Afterlife of Enclosure: British Realism, Character, and the Commons. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Leurs, Koen, and Tamara Shepherd. 2017. "Datafication and Discrimination." In The Datafied Society: Studying Culture through Data, edited by Mirko Tobias Schäfer and Karin van Es, 211–32. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

Li, Fei-Fei, and John Etchemendy. n.d. "Letter from the Denning Co-directors." HAI: Stanford University HumanCentered Artificial Intelligence. https://hai.stanford.edu/navigate/welcome (accessed March 13)https://hai.stanford.edu/navigate/welcome(accessedMarch13).

Liang, Percy. 2022. "Foundation Models Have Forever Changed AI Research. In the Future, They Need to be Released Responsibly." Protocol, July3. https://www.protocol.com/enterprise/foundation-models-ai-standards-stanfordhttps://www.protocol.com/enterprise/foundation-models-ai-standards-stanford.

Manovich, Lev. 2012. "Trending: The Promises and the Challenges of Big Social Data." In Debates in the Digital Humanities, edited by Matthew K. Gold, 460–75. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Manyika, James, Michael Chui, Brad Brown, Jacques Bughin, Richard Dobbs, Charles Roxburgh, and Angela Hung Byers. 2011. "Big Data: The Next Frontier for Innovation, Competition, and Productivity." McKinsey Digital, May1. https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/mckinsey-digital/our-insights/big-data-the-next-frontier-for-innovationhttps://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/mckinsey-digital/our-insights/big-data-the-next-frontier-for-innovation.

Marx, Karl. (1867) 1990. Capital: Critique of Political Economy. Vol. 1. London: Penguin.

Mayer-Schönberger, Viktor, and Kenneth Cukier. 2013. Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We Live, Work, and Think. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

McAfee, Andrew, and Erik Brynjolfsson. 2012. "Big Data: The Management Revolution." Harvard Business Review, October. https://hbr.org/2012/10/big-data-the-management-revolutionhttps://hbr.org/2012/10/big-data-the-management-revolution.

McCulloch, Warren S., and Walter Pitts. 1943. "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity." Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics5: 115–33.

McKelvey, Fenwick. 2021. "The Other Cambridge Analytics: Early 'Artificial Intelligence' in American Political Science." In The Cultural Life of Machine Learning: An Incursion into Critical AI Studies, edited by Jonathan Roberge and Michael Castelle, 117–42. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Mhlambi, Sabelo. 2020. "From Rationality to Relationality: Ubuntu as an Ethical and Human Rights Framework for Artificial Intelligence Governance." Carr Center Discussion Paper Series. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, July.

Mol, Annemarie. 2003. The Body Multiple: Ontology in Medical Practice. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Moore, Jason W. 2015. Capitalism in the Web of Life: Ecology and the Accumulation of Capital. London: Verso.

Moretti, Franco. 2017. "Franco Moretti: A Response." PMLA 132, no. 3(May): 686–89.

Murgia, Madhumita. 2023. "Risk of 'Industrial Capture' Looms over AI Revolution." Financial Times, March 23.

Newfield, Christopher, Anna Alexandrova, and Stephen John, eds. 2022. Limits of the Numerical: The Abuses and Uses of Quantification. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Nissenbaum, Helen. 2019. "Contextual Integrity up and down the Data Food Chain." Theoretical Inquiries 20, no. 1: 221–56.

Nixon, Rob. 2011. Slow Violence and the Environmentalism of the Poor. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Noble, Safiya Umoja. 2018. Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism. New York: New York University Press.

Noble, Safiya Umoja, and Sarah T. Roberts. 2019. "Technological Elites, the Meritocracy, and Postracial Myths in Silicon Valley." In Racism Postrace, edited by Roopali Mukherjee, Sarah Banet-Weiser, and Herman Gray, 113–30. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

O'Flaherty, Kate. 2022. "Apple's Privacy Features Will Cost Facebook $12 Billion." Forbes, April 23. https://www.forbes.com/sites/kateoflahertyuk/2022/04/23/apple-just-issued-stunning-12-billion-blow-to-facebook/?sh=1a210fd51907.

O'Neil, Cathy. 2016. Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy. New York: Crown.

Pearl, Judea, and Dana Mackenzie. 2018. The Book of Why: The New Science of Cause and Effect. New York: Basic Books. Perrigo, Billy. 2023a. "DeepMind's CEO Helped Take AI Mainstream. Now He's Urging Caution." Time, January 12. https://time.com/6246119/demis-hassabis-deepmind-interview/https://time.com/6246119/demis-hassabis-deepmind-interview/.

Perrigo, Billy. 2023b. "OpenAI Used Kenyan Workers on Less than $2 Per Hour to Make ChatGPT Less Toxic." Time, January18. https://time.com/6247678/openai-chatgpt-kenya-workers/https://time.com/6247678/openai-chatgpt-kenya-workers/.

Pichai, Sundar. 2023. "An Important Next Step on Our AI Journey." Google: The Keyword, February6. https://blog.google/intl/en-africa/products/explore-get-answers/an-important-next-step-on-our-ai-journey/https://blog.google/intl/en-africa/products/explore-get-answers/an-important-next-step-on-our-ai-journey/.

Price, Richard. (1771) 1773. Observations on Reversionary Payments. London: Cadell.

Raji, Deborah Inioluwa, Elizabeth I. Kumar, Aaron Horowitz, and Andrew Selbst. 2022. "The Fallacy of AI Functionality." Proceedings of the 2022 ACM Conference, 959–72. Seoul: ACM.

Raley, Rita, and Jennifer Rhee, eds. 2023. "Critical AI: A Field in Formation." Special issue, American Literature 92, no. 2 (June).

Resnick, Brian. 2018. "Cambridge Analytica's 'Psychographic Microtargeting': What's Bullshit and What's Legit." Vox, March26.https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2018/3/23/17152564/cambridge-analytica-psychographichttps://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2018/3/23/17152564/cambridge-analytica-psychographic

Roose, Kevin. 2023. "How ChatGPT Kicked Off an A.I. Arms Race." New York Times, February 3.

Rosiek, Jerry Lee, Jimmy Snyder, and Scott L. Pratt. 2020. "The New Materialisms and Indigenous Theories of Non-Human Agency: Making the Case for Respectful Anti-Colonial Engagement." Qualitative Inquiry 26, no. 3–4: 331–46.

Sadowski, Jathan. 2019. "When Data Is Capital: Datafication, Accumulation, and Extraction." Big Data and Society 6, no. 1.

Sadowski, Jathan. 2020. Too Smart: How Digital Capitalism Is Extracting Data, Controlling Our Lives, and Taking Over the World. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Sadowski, Jathan, and Thao Phan. 2022. "'Open Secrets': An Interview with Meredith Whittaker." In Economies of Virtue: The Circulation of 'Ethics' in AI, edited by Thao Phan, Jake Goldenfein, Declan Kuch, and Monique Mann, 147–59. Amsterdam: Institute of Network Cultures.

Saussure, Ferdinand Mongin. (1916) 2011. Course in General Linguistics. New York: Columbia University Press.

Schäfer, Mirko Tobias, and Karin van Es. 2017. The Data fi ed Society: Studying Culture through Data. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

Scheiber, Noam, and Kate Conger. 2020. "The Great Google Revolt." New York Times Magazine, February 18.

Seagate Technology. n.d. "The World of Data as We Know It Keeps Growing." Seagate Blog. https://blog.seagate.com/intelligent/the-world-of-data-as-we-know-it-keeps-growing/https://blog.seagate.com/intelligent/the-world-of-data-as-we-know-it-keeps-growing/(accessed July 5, 2023).

Searle, John R. 1980. "Minds, Brains, and Programs." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3, no. 3: 417–57.

Sejnowski, Terrence J. 2018. The Deep Learning Revolution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Smith, Brian Cantwell. 2019. The Promise of Artificial Intelligence: Reckoning and Judgment. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2019.

Srnicek, Nick. 2016. Platform Capitalism. Cambridge: Polity.

Starmans, Richard. 2016. "The Advent of Data Science: Some Considerations on the Unreasonable Effectiveness of Data." In Handbook of Big Data, edited by Peter Bühlmann, Petros Drineas, Michael Kane, and Mark van der Laan, 3–20. Boca Raton: CRC.

Tapo, Allahsera Auguste, Bakary Coulibaly, Sébastien Diarra, Christopher Homan, Julia Kreutzer, Sarah Luger, Arthur Nagashima, Marcos Zampieri, and Michael Leventhal. 2020. "Neural Machine Translation for Extremely Low-Resource African Languages: A Case Study on Bambara." Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Technologies for MT of Low Resource Languages, 23–32. Suzhou: ACL.

Teal, Kelly. 2023. "Activist Investor Out for Blood at Google, Wants More Layoffs." Channel Futures, January24. https://www.channelfutures.com/business-models/activist-investor-out-for-blood-at-google-wants-138k-more-layoffshttps://www.channelfutures.com/business-models/activist-investor-out-for-blood-at-google-wants-138k-more-layoffs.

Thatcher, Jim, David O'Sullivan, and Dillon Mahmoudi. 2016. "Data Colonialism through Accumulation by Dispossession: New Metaphors for Daily Data." Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 34, no. 6(December): 990–1006.

Turing A. M. 1950. "Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Mind 49, no. 236: 433–60.

Van Dijck, José, Thomas Poell, and Martijn de Waal. 2018. The Platform Society: Public Values in a Connective World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Vinsel, Lee. 2021. "You're Doing It Wrong: Notes on Criticism and Technology Hype." Medium, February1. https://sts-news.medium.com/youre-doing-it-wrong-notes-on-criticism-and-technology-hype-18b08b4307e5https://sts-news.medium.com/youre-doing-it-wrong-notes-on-criticism-and-technology-hype-18b08b4307e5.

Wang, Angelina, Sayash Kapoor, Solon Barocas, and Arvind Narayanan. 2022. "Against Predictive Optimization: On the Legitimacy of Decision-Making Algorithms that Optimize Predictive Accuracy." Social Science Research Network: 1–45. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4238015https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4238015.

Weizenbaum, Joseph. 1976. Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation. New York: Freeman.

West, Sarah Myers. 2020. "AI and the Far Right: A History We Can't Ignore." AI Now Institute, May 4. https://ainowinstitute.org/publication/ai-and-the-far-right-a-history-we-cant-ignore-2https://ainowinstitute.org/publication/ai-and-the-far-right-a-history-we-cant-ignore-2.

West, Sarah Myers, Meredith Whittaker, and Kate Crawford. 2019. "Discriminating Systems: Gender, Race, and Power in AI." AI Now Institute, April. https://ainowinstitute.org/publication/discriminating-systems-gender-race-and-power-in-ai-2https://ainowinstitute.org/publication/discriminating-systems-gender-race-and-power-in-ai-2.

Whittaker, Meredith. 2021. "The Steep Cost of Capture." Interactions 28, no. 6: 50–55.

Whittaker, Meredith. 2023. "Origin Stories: Plantations, Computers, and Industrial Control." Logic(s), no. 19. https://logicmag.io/supa-dupa-skies/origin-stories-plantations-computers-and-industrial-control/https://logicmag.io/supa-dupa-skies/origin-stories-plantations-computers-and-industrial-control/.

Wigner, Eugene. 1960. "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences." Communications in Pure and Applied Mathematics 13, no. 1(February): 1–14.

Williams, Raymond. 1989. "The Future of Cultural Studies." In The Politics of Modernism: Against the New Conformists, 151–62. London: Verso.

Wong, Matteo. 2023. "America Already Has an AI Underclass." Atlantic Monthly, July26. https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2023/07/ai-chatbot-human-evaluator-feedback/674805/https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2023/07/ai-chatbot-human-evaluator-feedback/674805/.

Zuboff, Shoshana. 2015. "Big Other: Surveillance Capitalism and the Prospects of an Information Civilization." Journal of Information Technology 30, no. 1: 75–89.

Zuboff, Shoshana. 2019. The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power. New York: PublicAffairs.